Hieronymus Bosch

Medieval art focused on adornment and symbolism rather than perfection and realism.  Lack of perspective as well as lack of proportions were common traits in this period.  Colors were vibrant and bold and often there was a depiction of violence. The figures were flat and stiff with no emotion. It may have been hard for artists to find a voice when the Catholic Church was the controlling power, and a great deal of the production was for the purpose of teaching religion to the illiterate. That is not to say that revolutionary art wasn't being produced.(1)

The painting above is believed to be one of Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch circa 1575.  It is an allegorical panel densely populated with grotesque creatures and macabre scenes. This is something we haven't seen before.  Bosch was the first artist to depict realms outside of human comprehension and is considered the first modern surrealist. While the purpose of his paintings was to instill Christian principles upon the viewer he managed to veer away from literal truths in his iconography. The story being told here was Christ's descent into Limbo to rescue the righteous souls. It would take multiple views to absorb all that was happening. His use of a limited color palette created a very dramatic scene. The canvas, or wood panel, depicts flat naked people representing the tortured souls in limbo. Hell was a common scene in Hieronymus Bosch's paintings, and he typically conveyed a darker side to the human psyche in his art. (2)

Hieronymus Bosch not only used symbolism in his paintings, but he also used satire which made his work hard to interpret but unique. We do observe a common use of flat lifeless looking people being tortured, vibrant colors that convey a sense of doom, and surreal proportions that were indicative of the times. However, Bosch drew solely from his imagination when creating his bizarre landscapes and hellacious biblical scenes. The imagery and juxtaposition of the different scenes happening is complex and fluid. He was a revolutionary mad scientist that created some truly unforgettable imagery that is still being copied today. 

    Notes 

    1. "Introduction to Classical, Medieval, and Renaissance Art," accessed September 30, 2020, https://www.murrieta.k12.ca.us/cms/lib5/CA01000508/Centricity/Domain/1517/Art%20Comparison%20Example.pdf.

    2. "Hieronymus Bosch," The Art Story, accessed September 30, 2020, https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bosch-hieronymus/

Transcending Time and Place

The mihrab of the Niujie Mosque, Beijing, China (北京牛街礼拜寺的米哈拉布)

Beijing Niujie Mosque

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Andalucia The Moorish Mihrab of the Cordoba Mosque Mihrab Prayer Niche, La Mezquita de Cordoba, Spain.

Islamic art spans around 1400 years, covers a diverse geographic population, and is influenced by many sources. It is important to note that it is not always religious in nature.  Because of these factors scholars are often torn about the use of the phrase Islamic Art. Common characteristics include repetitive patterns, lack of figures, stylized forms based on geometry, and a decorative use of calligraphy. It has the ability to transcend time and space. These cohesive aesthetics are what define the art as Islamic, but we should be careful to recognize that individual cultures have shaped the art in the region in which it exists. (1)

The above images are of two mosques located in vastly different geographical regions. You can see the similarities in the use of geometry and repetition, or arabesque. Arches draw the viewer in and there is a pervasive quality that is hard to ignore. They both use calligraphic citation from the Koran in the decoration and there is a lack of figurative presence. However similar these mosques seem at first, there are distinct differences between the two that can be attributed to their locations. 

The top two photos are of the Niujie Mosque in Beijing China. It is the oldest mosque in Beijing and the most famous. The external architectural forms are a blend of Islamic and Chinese influence.  The structure reflects Chinese architecture in the repeated use of rectilinear forms rather than domes, and there is a distinct regional use of color and ornamentation on both the interior and exterior. It almost looks like a pagoda rather than a mosque and the use of dragons on the ornamentation gives it a distinctly Chinese vibe. (2)

Next, we fly across the globe to Spain and take a look at the Cordoba Mosque located in La Mezquita de Cordoba. This time we have a mosque with a very distinct byzantine influence. This structure has a rich and diverse history where it began as a temple, was transformed into a Church, then converted into a mosque, before being rebuilt by the Umayyads.(3)The architects made use of a number of Roman columns when rebuilding the mosque. The building is made from pieces of the Roman temple that was once occupying its place. The mihrab is an opulent masterpiece heavily influenced by Roman antiquity.

Islamic Art is not limited to a time, place, or culture. It isn't restricted to religion or architecture. We have compared two different mosques from across the globe and found that while they are different they have unifying features. They were each fashioned according to the popular architectural designs of the region, but within we found the tessellating tiles and sacred geometry that defines Islamic Art. It is truly a transcendental experience.

 

    Notes

    1.  "Introduction to Islamic Art," Lumen Boundless Art History, accessed September 25, 2020, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/introduction-to-islamic-art/.

    2.  "The Niujie Mosque," China Highlights, accessed September 25, 2020, https://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/attraction/the-niujie-mosque.htm.

    3.  "The Great Mosque of Cordoba," Khan Academy, accessed September 25, 2020, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/early-europe-and-colonial-americas/ap-art-islamic-world-medieval/a/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba

 

The Amarna Changes

 

House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti 
and Three of their Daughters, c.1350 BCE

When Akhenaten became pharaoh he was the first ruler of Egypt to declare a monotheistic religion. He only ruled for 17 years, but within these years he turned the face of Egyptian art on its head. It is believed that he became so wrapt up in this new religion that he severely neglected his duties as a ruler. His changes to the culture were so extreme and damaging to the empire that his predecessors would attempt to wipe all evidence of his rule from history. (1)

The period of Akhenaten's rule is known as the Amarna Period. Before this period Egyptian art was very stagnant and formulaic. The focus was on permanence as well as performance. The purpose was to exalt the person in the afterlife and would most likely be found in a tomb. The bottom image is of prince Amenherkhepshef, one of Ramses III sons, being introduced to Isis. It is a calculated painting that follows certain guidelines that are repeated throughout ancient Egypt prior to the Amarna Period. The two figures are in profile with the eyes and upper bodies facing the front. The figures appear flat and blocky. The symbolism in the clothing and headdress shed light on who it is we are looking at. The male figures are always depicted darker than females. As you can see, this painting is following a set of rules that will remain in practice until the rise of the Amarna Period and Akhenaten. (2) 

The top image is a house altar depicting Akhenaten and Nefertiti with their children. Here we see a deviation in the subject matter as well as the style. This period marks the first time we see an intimate focus on a Pharaoh and his family. We are also looking at a piece that was made for a house altar rather than for a tomb. The God depicted here is that of Aton, the sun God, but he is not shown in human-like form like the previous eras. He is the disk centered above the figures extending rays over the royal family. The figures are shown markedly different from past paintings in that they are exaggerated, elongated, and more curvilinear. This relief has an air of playfulness that hasn't been touched on before. (3)

It is not clear as to why these artistic changes were made during Akhenaten's rule. Some scholars believe it was his way of exalting himself above the populous while others argue that it may have been a way to relate more positively to the people. I wanted to revisit the Amarna period because I realize my own mistake at thinking the curvilinear forms made the pharaoh appear more natural. These depictions are anything but natural. Honestly, I love looking at this piece and thinking that aliens were involved somehow. 

    Notes

    1.  Joshua J Mark, "Akhenaten," Ancient Art, accessed September 23, 2020, https://www.ancient.eu/Akhenaten/

    2.  "Ancient Egyptian Art," accessed September 23, 2020, http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/ancient-art/egyptian.htm

    3.  "Akhenaten," Wikipedia, September 23 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhenaten

The "Good" Shepherd

In the earliest stages of development Christian art drew heavily from pagan prototypes.  Christianity had not yet been adopted by the Roman people, and they had to be secretive, or face persecution. Christian dogma also limited works of art by not allowing graven images to be created.  It has been difficult for historians to differentiate early Christian art from Roman art before the year 100. Constantine would change all of that by adopting Christianity as the official religion of Rome, but until then Christians had to be secretive and careful. (1)

The Moschophoros of the Acropolis, c. 570 BC

The image above is an Ancient Greek sculpture known as the Moschoforos or Calf bearer. This statue is attributed to the Greek sculptor Phaidimos.It is thought that the statue is of a young wrestler named Rhombos. He is carrying a calf to the sacrificial altar of Athena Pallas. Does this imagery look familiar? (2)

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Good_Shepherd_Catacomb_of_Priscilla.jpg

The next image is of a fresco that was found in the Catacombs of Priscilla, Rome. As you can see,in this early Christian piece, the iconography is almost identical to the statue found in Ancient Greece. The main difference in these two artworks is that the calf in the former has been substituted for a ram in the latter. Similarly, both the males appear young and fit. Neither of the individuals are dressed elaborately. There is a quality of humbleness and simplicity to both works. The symbol of Christ as a shepherd is well known to us, but this is not a new theme. (3)

The Christian image found in the catacombs is indicative of what we find of Christian art during this time period. Remember, graven images are frowned upon by the believers. What little artworks identified are often hidden away, and is heavily influenced by the Greco Roman art. It seems that the early Christians found a way around their edict of no graven images all while blending in with the rest of the populous.  

Notes

1.  Art History, "A Ancient Christian Art," accessed September18, 2020,  http://www.arthistory.net/christian-art/

2. Wikipedia, "Kriophoros," accessed September 18, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriophoros

3. Emil Kren, and Daniel Marx, "Early Christian Painter, Italian," Web Gallery of Art, accessed                 September 18, 2020, https://www.wga.hu/html_m/zearly/1/2mural/3priscil/2velati7.html

Symmachi Panel

 

The Symmachi Panel, unknown maker, Rome, Italy, about 400 AD, carved elephant ivory. Museum no.212-1865, © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

With the ushering in of the Christian Era paganism is waning, but some of the populace still holds true to the old ways. This diptych is an engraving of a pagan scene relating to the cults of Bacchus and Jupiter. It was likely made in dedication to the conjoining of two aristocratic families either in marriage or priestess hood. Whatever the reason there seemed to be a revival of Neo-classic ivory carvings near the end of the 4th century just when paganism was outlawed.(1) 

This one foot tall ivory relief is only one half of a diptych made between 393 to 394 AD. A diptych is a two paneled piece that folds together with the carvings facing out. There would be a small recess in between the panels so that wax could be poured inside to enable a person to carve out letters, poetry, or messages.  This half is called the Symmachi tablet due to the inscription at the top and named for the family. The other half of the diptych is the Nichomachi tablet, but due to its poor condition we will only focus on the Symmachi half. (1)

In the panel we see a priestess standing before an altar. She has ivy, the plant of Bacchus, in her hair, and she is standing under an oak tree, a symbol of Jupiter. She is sprinkling incense onto a fire in front of a boy holding a cup of fruit and a jar of wine. It is thought to have been an adaptation or copy of a Greek relief. (2)

There is some argument over what occasion, if any, the panels represent. Marriage, priestesshood, or a functioning codex are some theories. What we do know is that the piece is reminiscent of the Greek style of relief sculpture. The individuals are sculpted in profile and the drapery is incredibly detailed. The weight is born on a single leg in Greek contrapposto style. It is a throwback to earlier art. Could this be a rebellion against the new monotheistic religion? Maybe this piece was a codex used to send secret messages between the families who were both senatorial. It is likely that some of the populous would have fought to keep their traditions, and the aristocratic citizens would have had the most to lose. (1)

    Notes

    1. Unknown, Feminae: Medieval Women and Gender Index, accessed September 16, 2020, https://inpress.lib.uiowa.edu/feminae/DetailsPage.aspx?Feminae_ID=37594

    2. The Symmachi Panel, about 400 AD, Victoria and Albert Museum, accessed September 16, 2020, www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the-symmachi-panel/

Athena Parthenos

 

Pheidias, Athena Parthenos, 447–32 B.C.E. (this is a 3rd c. C.E. copy known as Varvakeion found in Athens), National Archaeological Museum in Athens; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Greek society was centered around a polytheistic religion in which each deity represented a certain facet of the human condition.  The gods/goddesses had the ability to influence human affairs and often they were deemed patrons of a city. Early on the Greeks built simple altars for the gods/goddesses, but over time massive temples came into fashion.  Inside these temples statues of the deity's likenesses would be placed.  This lovely statue of Athena, the goddess of wisdom, is one such example. (1)

Athena Parthenos is a replica of the lost chryselephantine (gold and ivory) sculpture that stood 38 feet tall.  It was made by the acclaimed sculptor Phidias and his assistants and was housed in The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens.  The sculpture shows Athena resting after winning a battle.  In her right hand she holds Nike, the goddess of victory.  In her left hand she supports a carved shield depicting a battle with the Amazons with a large serpent on the back side.  On her breast there is a relief of the head of Medusa.  Her helmet bears two griffins with the Sphinx in the center.  Her long tunic is cinched together by two intertwined serpents, and her weight is shifted so that her right side is bearing it while her left knee is relaxed and bent.  It is believed that she had a spear that was resting against her right arm. Her neck piece was also of serpents and a gift from her father Zeus. (2)

This colossal statue of Athena was a marvel of the time.  Phidias began sculpting her in 447 B.C.E. and it took nearly 10 years for the finished product to be dedicated to the city.  It is said that the entire treasury of Athens was wrapped up in this work, and it is within the well known structure of The Parthenon that the likeness resided.  In fact, it is believed that the Parthenon was actually built with her gigantic dimensions in mind.  She stood on a pedestal measuring approximately 13.5 by 26.4 feet surrounded by Doric columns facing the east door.  She watched over Athens for nearly a thousand years until, it is believed, she was either taken and destroyed by Constantinople or stolen. (3)

Imagine trotting into Athens on your horse.  You look up to see this gleaming colossal statue draped in gold and ivory looking over the city.  She's 38 feet tall standing atop a pedestal that adds another 13 to 25 feet to the intimidating illusion.  She's housed inside a structure just as big, and covered in symbology of strength and victory.  It's likely to have given pause to the most barbaric of travelers.  It would have been a wonderful sight to behold.  

    Notes

    1. Mark Cartwright, "Ancient Greek Religion" in A Ancient History Encyclopedia, https://www.ancient.eu/Greek_Religion/, accessed September 11, 2020

    2. Wikipedia, s.v. "Athena Parthenos," last modified September 7, 2020, https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_Parthenos, accessed September 11, 2020

    3. Mark Cartwright, "Athena Parthenos by Phidias" in A Ancient History Encyclopedia, https://www.ancient.eu/article/785/athena-parthenos-by-phidias/, accessed September 11, 2020.           

Odysseus' Escape

 

Unknown

Attic Black-Figure Column Krater, 525–500 B.C., Terracotta

33 × 35.5 × 30 cm (13 × 14 × 11 13/16 in.), 96.AE.303

The J. Paul Getty Museum, Villa Collection, Malibu, California, Gift of Barbara and Lawrence Fleischman

We have a lot of examples of Ancient Greek pottery due to the durability of terracotta or fired clay.  I chose this example not only because of the story it tells, but also because it gives us a unique insight into the lives of the Ancient Greeks.  

The Greeks were known to make a very thick sweet wine that had to be mixed with water.  This vessel, known as a Krater, was created between 525 and 500 B.C, and would have been used to do both the mixing and ladling of the wine during the male gatherings known as symposiums.  You can see that the mouth of the vessel is very wide as is the neck which allowed for both the filling and ladling of the liquid.  There are two handles attached to either side for ease of carrying.  It has a wide body that tapers down rather abruptly, and there is a simple foot attached to the bottom for balance.(1)  

The slip painting technique is known as the black-figure style.  It was a Corinthian technique that was adopted by the Athenians around 630 B.C.E.  The combination of painting with black slip inset on a lighter panel of slip, incising details with tools, and the 3 stage firing process is what gives us this unique aesthetic. The firing was a complicated process that would have taken a knowledgeable master. It is the firing that brings the black silhouettes to life through the venting process which oxidizes the chemicals in the clay.(2)

On the body of the Krater is a motif or slip painting of the hero Odysseus escaping the Cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus tied himself to the belly of a ram after getting the cyclops drunk on straight wine and piercing out his eye. We know that the mixing of water with wine was a Greek statement of civilized behavior and can conclude that the artist was possibly making a double entendre by putting this motif on a Krater. It is the stories that we find on ancient artifacts that give us a glimpse into the mentality of the civilization. Often, with the ancient Greeks, we find tales of heroic deeds and mythological monsters.(1)

In conclusion, we can discover many things about a civilization through their artworks. For example, knowing the utility of an artifact helps us understand a little bit about the societal exchange taking place. Techniques borrowed from other geographical locations tell us a little bit about the cultural sharing in this period. Finally, when we decipher the stories we can begin to understand how the people related to the environment, each other, and what their religious beliefs and customs may have been.

Notes

1. “Unknown, Mixing Vessel with Odysseus Escaping from the Cyclop’s Cave, 550-500 B.C.E", (video) Khan Academy. Accessed September 9, 2020. https://youtu.be/BDo3L3vqE6M.2.

2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v. “Greek Potter,” last modified May 22, 2020, 

accessed September 9, 2020.

The Colossal Statue of Akhenaten

 

Figure 2. Unknown. Akhenaten, 18th Dynasty, ca. 1353-1335 BCE. From the temple of Aton, Karnak, Egypt, Sandstone. http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-africa/art-amarna-akhenaten-and-his-life-under-sun-002587

Akhenaten, Egypts tenth ruler of the eighteenth dynasty. One of the most fascinating figures in all of Ancient Egypt. In fact, we knew nothing of him until the nineteenth century.  It is widely believed by scholars that Akhenaten’s successors tried to wipe him from the history books. Akhenaten’s entire existence is shrouded in mystery and scandal, but the most interesting thing about the entire enterprise is the dramatically different style of art that comes about during his rule.(1)

The Colossal Statue of Akhenaten standing at 41ft is a sculpture of exaggerated proportions and distorted features in sandstone. His face is elongated with effeminate features. The lips are thick and full and accompanied by large dimples. The nose is long and thin and the eyes are perfectly almond shaped. The neck is stretched and the body has no muscle definition.  His stomach protrudes out and down encapsulated by curvy hips. He may be dressed and holding relics like a Pharoah, but that is where the similarities end.  Akhenaten’s depiction in this statue is way more natural than we have ever seen from a Pharaoh.  It’s definitely a romanticized version of natural, but natural nonetheless. There is nothing masculine, heroic, or imposing in this figure like you would expect from a Pharaoh.

All of Ancient Egyptian art was highly stylized to show the strength and power of the ruler. So why would Akhenaten purposely have a statue made of himself that is exaggerated almost to the point of appearing feminine? One theory is that he didn’t, but rather his successor, had work done on the artifacts in an effort to obliterate any memory of Akhenaten. Another theory is that when Akhenaten began the monotheistic worship he wanted to appear otherworldly and God-like. The distortions made by the artist would have separated the Pharaoh from the common people in such a way that stood apart even from the elder Pharaohs. Yet another theory speculates that Akhenaten may have actually had a genetic disorder or even possibly that he was hermaphroditic.(2)

What if the purpose was just the opposite of trying to look heroic and kingly? What if Akhenaten wanted to appear more natural to his people? What if he knew that appearing effeminate would make him a more relatable and beloved to the people? Whatever the case may be, we have a break in the monotony of Ancient Egyptian art with the appearance of the Pharaoh Akhenaten. We have a lovely realistic king who appears romantic and beautiful.

     Notes

1. Cyril, Aldred. Akhenaten: King of Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 1988

     2. Unknown, Colossal Statues of Akhenaten in Joy of Museums Virtual Tours, joyofmuseums.com, accessed September 4, 2020.

Archeological Restoration

 

The archaeological site at Knossos, with restored rooms in the background, Crete (photo: Jebulon, public domain)(1)

Archeologist have a responsibility to the preservation of the past.  When working on an excavation they must take special care in recording the artifacts so as not to cause further harm.  They must also make sure that they share the findings with the public, and one of the ways in which they do this is by restoration.  The restoration process can help the public envision what the site may have looked like before it fell into ruins.  The problem with this method is that it can cause irreparable damage to the site as well as mislead the public into believing that they are seeing something authentic when it's really an artists conjecture. 

What you see above is an example of archeological restoration used to garner interest in what would otherwise be a rather uninspiring place.  It is a very popular tourist attraction that probably would be less of a draw if it were just a pile of rocks.  It has been turned into a sort of interactive experience where a person can walk through the palace and enjoy the colorful wall paintings or hang out in the spaces meant for kings and queens.  By its very nature restoration can be a very valuable educational tool. (2)

Restoration can help preserve artifacts.  In fact, it is believed, that without restoration parts of this palace would have fallen into ruin. Would you rather have a lost artifact or one that may not be entirely historically accurate?  While it is true that restoration can be misleading it does, however, play an important role in interpreting the past.  The artist has the leisure to research and restore the site based on what we know of other archeological sites.  He/she can make informed decisions on what is appropriate to add or subtract. (3)

Deciding on whether or not to use restoration on an archeological site may be a difficult choice, but as technology grows we should be able to find a middle ground.  It seems that 3D models can serve the same purpose as restoring something as complex as the throne room, and if we can do a 3D model then surely we could add in some virtual reality.  There is no simple answer to this complex dilemma of when to use restoration. We just have to trust that one day we will have the technology to make the decision a bit easier.

    Notes

    1. https://smarthistory.org/ancient-mediterranean/the-palace-at-knossos-crete/

    2. Lipe, William D, "Archeological Ethics and Law," in Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, June 5, 2019, accessed September 2, 2020.

    3. Dr. Senta German, "The Palace at Knossos (Crete), " in Smarthistory, July 11 2018, accessed September 2 2020, https://smarthistory.org/ancient-mediterranean/the-palace-at-knossos-crete/