Sub-Saharan Africa vs the Art Historian

Mali; Inland Niger Delta Style

The reluctance of many art historians and anthropologists to recognize African Art has greatly stunted the scholastic studies of sub-Saharan artifacts. Early in the 20th century the people studying sub-Saharan Africa were neither trained nor recognized as historians. It wasn't until the 1950's, when some museums and collectors in the US revived interest in the study of African Art in the context of modern art, that the studies became more serious. Changes in the way the West perceived Africa had to come about before any real progress could be made towards identifying and interpreting African artifacts. (1) 

In 1955 Erwin Panofsky, a German art historian teaching in the US, proposed a new way to analyze Art through three stages. The first two stages focused on identifying the practical nature of the art and what the image represented for the people of the time. The third stage involved the symbolic significance of the image in relation to its cultural significance on the whole. Obviously without historical context, as we find with most African relics, this method poses major problems. We have very little evidence and knowledge of the culture or people that these objects originated from. Panofsky's methodology may have hindered the study of sub-Saharan Africa by trying to impose a western narrative onto nonwestern iconography. (2)

Progress began in the 60's, alongside the civil rights movement, that led academics to reexamine the way in which we perceive sub-Saharan African societies and their art. This change of attitude about African mind and culture opened up the field to an in depth study of the region.  Interpreting African Art can be tricky in that there is no context, but we have to remember that it doesn't have to fit into the western narrative to be a work of art. (2)

While researching for my last blog, I had a difficult time finding adequate information for my essay. I spent a lot of time looking at images that had little to no context. Finally, I found an interesting piece that was accompanied by articles, but the dates were listed as "unknown." Assuming this meant they were "ancient," I continued writing my piece. It wasn't until I was proofreading that I found a date which listed it as a nineteenth century piece. The reason I am sharing this story is because I recognize that there is a need for adequate study of this region. It's hard to believe that the "cradle of civilization" has held so little interest for scholars for so long. 

    Notes

    1. Dr. Peri Klemm, "The Reception of African Art in the West," Smarthistory, December 20, 2016, accessed November 2, 2018, https://smarthistory.org/the-reception-of-african-art-in-the-west/.

    2. Adams, Monni. "African Visual Arts from an Art Historical Perspective." African Studies Review 32, no. 2 (1989): 55-103. Accessed October 31, 2020. doi:10.2307/523970.

Yoruba Peoples (19th Century)

Yoruba Carved Wooden Maternity Figure

A Yoruba kneeling female figure

Located in Nigeria and Benin the Yoruba people are one of the largest ethnic groups to have survived in Africa. Many of their people were transported to the Americas during the transatlantic slave period, but because they were some of the last Africans to be captured, they were able to retain parts of their culture. The Yoruba had developed great city-states and urban centers and were a thriving nation around the eighth century before British colonization. (1)

The Yoruba have many deities, but their religion is based on the idea that they will go to the realm of ancestors when they die. From here, the deceased may still have some influence on what happens on earth.  There is an origin myth which describes the "ancestor of all people,  bringing forth from heaven a cock, some earth, and a palm kernel. The earth was thrown into the water where the cock scratched at it until it became land, and the palm kernel grew into a great tree that had as many limbs as the Yoruba had kingdoms. (2)

These Yoruba kneeling females are examples of wooden offering bowls that were popular among Yoruba households. These bowls were used to serve kola nuts to visitors as a gesture of friendship. The woman is kneeling in what is thought to be a position of respect while holding a chicken or cock. She is said to be a messenger of the spirits and is known as Olumeye or "one who knows honor". The women are intricately carved showcasing what would have been scarification on the face and upper torso. The face carvings are termed pele which is a term for 'gems' in Yorubaland. Hairstyles in the Yorba culture, as in many African cultures, are an important part of a person's identity. They may reflect the phase of life or status of the individual. The bottom carving is done up in the bridal head-dress with the crested coiffure and incised slanting sides. Both of these carvings represent the Yorba ideal of beauty, youth, and maternity. (3) 

    Notes

    1. Ighobor, Kingsley, "Bigger than Africa: Tales of the Yoruba people," Africa Renewal, accessed October 28, 2020, https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2019-march-2020/bigger-africa-tales-yoruba-people.  

    2. Yoruba, Art & Life in Africa, accessed October 28, 2020, https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Yoruba. 

    3. World Art-Rare Antique Asian, Islamic & Colonial Decorative Arts/London, Michael Backman Ltd, accessed October 28, 2020, https://www.michaelbackmanltd.com/object/yoruba-carved-wooden-maternity-figure-bowl-possibly-by-the-carver-agbonbiofe/.

Sesshu Toyo Winter Landscape

Sesshu Toyo Winter Landscape, c. 1470

Sesshu Toyu, Winter Lanscape detail, c 1470

Sesshu Toyo was a Japanese Zen monk who is generally regarded as Japan's greatest painter. Heavily influenced by the Song and Yuan dynastic art, Sesshu Toyo uses their same techniques of austerity and simplicity to create his landscapes. (1) Curiously, many of the zen artists were not only inspired by artists of the southern Song Dynasty, but they were also painting landscapes of China despite having never been there. Sesshu Toyo, on the other hand, traveled to China in 1467 where he visited many buddhist monasteries, but upon returning to a war torn Japan he traveled the countryside making his own sketches of the landscape. (2)

Sesshu Toyo mastered the art of sumi-e painting or Chinese ink painting. These paintings are done quickly and economically with expressive brushstrokes. In the images above, Sesshu Toyo uses high contrast in his grey tones to achieve his purpose. He not only utilizes the blank canvas to highlight the snow, but he also takes advantage of using heavy black lines to create a sense of drama. His sharp choppy lines are significant in that they are not what you would expect from a landscape. These lines create the expressive energy within the painting. You feel the iciness through his use of harsh jagged brushstrokes slashing through the canvas in opposition to each other. This is not a pleasant winter wonderland but a harsh and frozen composition of the elements. Finally, there is a vertical slash that runs asymmetrically through the painting guiding our eyes through the turmoil. (3) 

Sesshu Toyo used the ideology of his religion in the creation of his paintings. As we have seen from other Asian artists there is a strong connection with the natural world. The contemplation of nature and how we interpret or express it is something that these monks spent a lot of time pondering. They were encouraged to wander the countryside for this very reason. Sesshu Toyo was an expert at communicating the deeper experience of nature. (3) 

What makes an artwork masterful? This is a question that is very open ended and objective, but I do believe that one of the criteria would be that it makes you feel something. In my opinion, this piece meets that criteria tenfold. When I look at this painting I feel more than just the cold. Something about this piece makes me feel the crushing weight of infinity alongside my own insignificance. Sesshu Toyo's sumi-e paintings are a treasure.

    Notes

    1. Dr. Sonia Coman, "A brief history of the arts of Japan: the Kamakura to Azuchi-Momoyama periods, Smarthistory, December 2, 2019, accessed October 22, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/japan-kamakura-azuchi-momoyama/

    2. Zen Mesterek Zen Masters, Terebess, accessed October 22, 2020, https://terebess.hu/zen/mesterek/Sesshu.html.

    3. Dr. Asa Simon Mittman, "Nature:spotlight -- Sesshu Toyo's Winter Landscape," Smarthistory, August 3, 2019, accessed October 23, 2020, https://smarthistory.org/theme-nature/.

 

Daoism and Chinese Art

 

Scholar Viewing a Waterfall by Ma Yuan (active ca. 1190-1225)

Daoism is one of three major philosophies that has had a lasting impact on Chinese art and culture. The other two, Buddhism and Confucianism, are no less significant, and used similar methods of minimalism and austerity for expression. Chinese art was mostly meant to convey the message that the artist was of good character and relied on a mastery of brush strokes and simple tricks to express the artist's inner soul. (1)

Daoism's central dogma can be described as a universal order of two opposing forces. These forces are in a constant state of flux that keep the universe in balance. Daoism stresses the importance of living harmoniously with nature. The spontaneity of nature is divine and man's will should not be in opposition to it. Daoism began around 500 B.C.E. (2) By the time of the Song Dynasty, Daoism had not only grown, but it had converged into what is known as Neo-Confucianism, a combination of Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. (3) 

The image above is a Southern Song painting of a man, presumably a scholar, gazing down at a bubbling stream. Painted on a square album leaf, the composition is compressed into the bottom left corner. The empty corner is an allusion to the infinite beyond our reach. The brushstrokes are deliberate and expressive anchoring us to the reality of our finite world. (4) The illusion of depth is achieved through the harmonious use of light and dark washes as well as a mist-like background. There is a tranquility to the subject matter that is achieved through minimal detail. 

This painting is a great example of Daoism philosophy penetrating the arts. The expressive brushstrokes  convey a feeling of untamed energy surging through the canvas. The waterfall is alive and spewing from the mountain while a pine tree, against all odds, grows crooked and strong out of the hillside. Meanwhile, the serene man and woman observe silently. There is a sense of material detachment to this painting that is almost poetic. You can feel the balance of forces at work through the juxtaposition of the elements.

 

     Notes

    1. Cartwright, Mark, Ancient Chinese Art, Ancient EU, accessed October 21, 2020, https://www.ancient.eu/Chinese_Art/.

    2.   Philosophy of Taoism, Highbrow, accessed October 21, 2020, https://gohighbrow.com/philosophy-of-taoism/.

    3.  The Song Dynasty, Boundless Art History, accessed October 21, 2020, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-song-dynasty/.   

    4.  Kim, Hae Yeun, East Asian Cultural Exchange in Tiger and Dragon Paintings, The Met 150, accessed October 21, 2020, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tidra/hd_tidra.htm.

   

Buddhapada

"Buddhapada" stone, 1st/2nd c C.E, Gandhara

The earliest representations of the Buddha were aniconic so his presence was often told by images of a parasol, the wheel, the tree of life, or footprints.(1) The Buddha could not be physically shown because he had passed into Nirvana therefore symbols like footprints would have represented his spiritual force. This symbolic vocabulary would have been universally understood by Buddhists.  The image above, found in Gandhara, are unique in that they were impressions rather than raised prints, and would have signified that the Buddha had actually, at one time, been there. Whereas a raised footprint, like the ones found in Amaravati, would have been a focus of devotion rather than a proclamation of the actual presence of the Buddha. (2)

Gandhara was a trade region that attracted a diverse group of people. It is believed that the movement of merchants and displaced tribes helped define a new set of cultural standards. It's possible that the imprints were a way for the Gandharan people to justify their particular interpretation of Buddhist philosophy. Who would argue if the Buddha had actually ministered to the people?(2)

Contained within a stylistically Gandhara crossed border are footprints of the Buddha covered in symbols. The lotus at the center of the feet are traditionally known as Dharmachakras, or wheels, but these are a Gandhara invention that have incorporated the lotus into the design. A Dharmachakra is the wheel of karma and is a shared symbol between the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions. The lotus symbolizes the Buddha's purity of spirit and also forms the focal point of the piece. The Triratna symbol on the heels incorporates the lotus into the design as well. The Triratna is a symbol of the Threefold Way which represents the Three Jewels of Buddhism (the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha or the enlightened one, the teachings, and the monastic order). On the toes are repeated Svastika symbols that were auspicious symbols commonly found in Buddhist and Jain art during this period. There are two Yakshis on either side of the prints both holding palm leaves. Females played a secondary role in the early Northern Buddhist tradition and their appearance is odd. The hand gestures being shown tell us that they are signifying respect and greeting once again, alerting us to the physical presence of the Buddha.(2)

    Notes

    1. "Buddha Footprint," Wikipedia, accessed October 9, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha_footprint

    2.  John Eskenazi, "A 'Buddhapada' Stone , 1st/2nd c C.E, Gandhara," Columbia.edu, accessed October 9, 2020, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0100_0199/kushanart/buddhapada/buddhapada.html.
 

The Ajanta Caves

 

Ajanta Cave 26

Bodhisattva Padmapani (detail), Cave 1

Dated from the 2nd century B.C.E. to 650 C.E. the Ajanta Caves are an extraordinary example of Indian rock cut architecture. The structure was cut into the face of a mountain to form a Buddhist temple with 30 total caves dedicated to the life of the Buddha. Not only is the architecture mind blowing, but the paintings, or more appropriately tempera, found inside were considered to be some of the finest examples of ancient art in the world. Unfortunately, graffiti and poor maintenance has severely damaged the paintings, but we still have a few surviving to revel over.(1)

The top photo is of Cave 26. It is an amazingly symmetrical hall built on a horseshoe shaped cliff along the Waghora river. This part of the Ajanta Caves was a later addition built in the 5th century C.E. The piece at the end of the hall holds the stupa with a sculpture of the Buddha at the base. (2) Stupas were dirt burial mounds faced with stone and built to house part of the Buddha's or Bodhisattva's ashes.(3) Directly overhead are rib-like sculptures that overwhelm the viewer. The left and right sides are lined with perfectly symmetrical pillars covered in stone carvings of Buddhist themes. Most interesting is that these caves were created with simple tools of chisel, and hammer. The method used in Ajanta was reverse mapping where the chiseling process takes place from top to bottom.(4)

The bottom photo is a detail of Bodhisattva Padmapani located in Cave 1. The paintings found in Cave 1 were also of the second phase of Ajanta construction. This painting shows the Bodhisattva on the threshold of enlightenment. He is in a peaceful posture holding a lotus (his name translates to one holding the Padma or lotus flower) with half closed eyes looking down with compassion. He is richly painted in ochres and reds with some traces of blue. He is adorned in jewels and wears a lavish crown. It's a sensuous painting that is both material and divine. It's sort of a paradox.(5)

Even though we have lost quite a few of the frescoes to bad practice and vandalism we can learn a lot from these ancient artifacts. Somehow a community of people found a way to bring hope and light into a deep dark cave with nothing more than hammer, chisel, faith, and imagination. They created beauty within the mountain.  

    Notes

    1. "The Caves of Ajanta," Khan Academy, accessed October 7, 2020, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/south-asia/x97ec695a:gupta-period/a/the-caves-of-ajanta.

    2. "Interior of Cave No 26, (Ajanta)," British Library, accessed October 7, 2020, http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/i/019pho000430s34u00007000.html.

    3. "What is A Stupa," Lion's Roar, accessed October 7, 2020, https://www.lionsroar.com/what-is-a-stupa/.

    4. "Ajanta Caves: A perspective on Construction Methods and Techniques," IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, accessed October 7, 2020, https://ijret.org/volumes/2016v05/i09/IJRET20160509035.pdf.

    5. "The Ajanta Cave Murals: 'Nothing Less than the Birth of Indian Art,'" The Guardian, accessed October 7, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/aug/15/mural-ajanta-caves-india-birth-indian-art.

Homunculus

Medieval Art covered a historic period that spanned the fall of the Roman Empire in 300 AD to the beginning of the Renaissance in 1400 AD. It was such a vast timeframe that it's difficult to describe or pin down exactly what makes it Medieval. We have broken it up into periods, but one common theme is Christianity. With the Catholic Church in power we have a number of religious artworks being commissioned. It was likely that art was created as a means of education.  Stylistically medieval art deviated greatly from the classical period where the artists took a step back from realism and entered into a new age of symbolism. The artists were trying to communicate stories to the viewer through simple renderings. What is important is not the merit of the painting but the message. (1)

There were a great deal of Madonna and child paintings that came out of the Middle Ages. The painting above is a 13th Century tempera and gold on wood icon of the Madonna and child by Italian painter Berlinghiero Berlinghieri. The figures in this painting have that distinct lack of depth common during the time. The hands in particular stand out as the fingers are proportionately off with a stylized pattern on their back side. The faces show little emotion and the eyes are dead. Most curiously, Baby Jesus looks like a tiny man. (2)

We know that the purpose of the arts was to teach the gospels to the populous.  Most people could neither read nor afford books, and let's not forget that they were living in a time when painting icons was a tricky occupation. There may have even been a common belief that God would punish someone for getting something theologically incorrect. So, what about Baby Jesus? Why was he always painted looking like a small man? Well, the artist was trying to convey the nature of Christ to the viewer. You see, the symbolism doesn't have to be subtle. The tiny baby looking like a man is obviously trying to point out that Jesus was God incarnate who is immutable and unchanging. Medieval artist may not have been the greatest of painters by merit, but they definitely had a talent for telling stories through the brush. (2)

    Notes

    1.  "Medieval Art," Wikipedia, accessed October 2, 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_art

    2.  "Why Are Babies in Medieval Paintings So Creepy?," Tales of Times Forgotten, accessed October 2, 2020, https://talesoftimesforgotten.com/2019/10/27/why-are-babies-in-medieval-paintings-so-creepy/.